NATIONALALISM IN EUROPE
NATION
A large number of people of mainly common descent, language, history, inhabiting a territory bounded by defined limits and forming a society under one government is called a nation.
NATIONALISM
Identification with one's own nation and support for its interests especially to exclusion of the interest of the other nation.
REPUBLIC
A country that is governed by a president and politicians elected by the people and where there is no king and queen.
ABSOLUTIST
Refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralized, militarized and repressive.
UTOPIAN
A vision of society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.
FRATENITY
A group of people sharing the same profession interest or beliefs.
PLEBISCITE
A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.
FREDERICK SORRIEU
Frederic Sorrieu and his visualization:
1.In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints, visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social republics’, as he called them.
2.The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train, and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
3. A female figure carries a torch of enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man, in the other hand.
4.On the earth lies the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
5.In Sorrieu’s Utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costumes.
6.Leading the procession are USA and Switzerland, followed by France and Germany. Following Germany are Austria, Kingdom of the two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
7.From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze at the scene. The artist symbolizes fraternity among the nations of the world.
1.0 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION
1.Growth of nationalism in France- The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution 1789.
2.Introduction of various measures and practices created sense of collective identity among the people of France- internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures were adopted.
3.Change of monarchy and establishment of republic, creation of new assembly- The Estate General was elected by the body of the active citizen and renamed the National Assembly.
4Rise of Napoleon and his reforms. Revolutionaries help other people of Europe to become nation- Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
5. civil code of 1804 by Napoleon - All privileges based on birth, Established equality before law, secured the right to property.
2.0 THE MAKING OF NATIONALALISM IN EUROPE
1. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into Kingdom, duchies and Cantons these divisions were having their autonomous rulers.
2.They didn't see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture.
3. The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria Hungary.
4. In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar, While the other half of the spoke a variety of dialects.
5.Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire.
6.The only tie binding these diverse groups to gather was a common allegiance to the emperor.
2.1 THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS
1.Socially and politically a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
2. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
3. This powerful aristocracy was however numerically a small group. The growth of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market.
4.Industrialization began in England in the Second half of the 18th century, but in France and parts of the German states it occurred only during the 19th century.
5. In its wake , new social groups came into being a working class population and middle class made up of Industrialists, businessmen, professional.
6.It was among the educated liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
2.2 WHAT DID LIBERAL NATIONALISM STAND FOR?
Liberalism or Liberal Nationalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
Four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere are:- 1.Liberalism stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction. For example, Napoleon’s administration was a confederation of 29 states, each of these possessed its own currencies, weight and measures.
2.Liberal Nationalists argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
3.In 1834, a customs union or ” zollverein” was formed. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
4.The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interest to national unification.
2.3 THE NEW CONSERVATION AFTER 1815
1.The defect of Napoleon in 1815 European governments were driven by spirit of conservatism.
2.Most conservatives, however did not propose of return to the society of pre revolutionary day.
3. That modernization could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
4.A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
5.In 1815, representatives of European powers Britain Russia Prussia an Austria, Who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met a Vienna to drew up a settlement for Europe.
6.The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to power and French lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
7.German confederation of 39 states that has been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
8.Autocratic did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic government.
NAPOLEONIC CODE
1.The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on birth, establishing equality before law and securing the right to property.
2. Administrative divisions were simplified.
Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues (abuse of manorial lords).
3.In towns, guild restrictions were removed.
4. Transport and communication systems were improved.
5. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.
6. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
2.4 THE REVOLUTIONARIES
1.During the years following 1815 the fear of repression drove many liberal- nationalists underground.
2. Revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and freedom.
3.Giuspeppe Mazzini born Genoa in 1807 , he became a member of the secret society of Carbonari.
4.He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
5.Mazzini believed that god had intended nations to be had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
6. Secret societies were set up in Germany, France , Switzerland and Poland.
7. Metternich described him as the most dangerous enemy of our social order.
3.0 THE AGE OF REVOUTION 1830-1848
1.As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German state, the provinces of Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.
2. When the France sneezes Metternich once remarked the rest of the Europe catches cold.
3.An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence.
4.Greece had been the part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
5. Greeks livings of exile and also from many west Europeans who has sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
6. Revolutionaries at that time fought for liberty and freedom. Example, Mazzini’s young Italy and Young Europe.
1.Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
2.Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
3.Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile production.
4.In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
5.The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.
3.3 1848:THE REVOLUTION OF THE LIBERALS
1.The poor , unemployment and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way.
2.Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
3.They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
4.Wilhelm IV king of Prussia rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
5.While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded.
6.The issue of expending political rights to women was controversial one within the liberal movement.
7.Women had formed their own political association founded newspaper and taken part of political meeting and demonstrations.
8.Women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery.
9.Monarchs were beginning to realize that the cycles if revolution and repression could be ended by granting concession to the liberal nationalist revolutionaries.
4.0 THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY
4.1 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
1. In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states.
2.Some of these states ceased to exist during the Napoleonic wars.
3.At the end of the war, there were still 39 independent states in Germany.
4.Prussia was most powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.
5. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who had tried to unite the different regions of the German federation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
6.In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to vote for an all-German National Assembly. Their representatives met at Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as emperor.
7. The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy, the military and the ‘Junkers’.
8. Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck led the movement for unification of Germany.
9. Bismarck carried out this process with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
10. He fought three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.
11. Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of princes of German States, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German Emperor.
4.2 UNIFICATION OF ITALY
1.Giuseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy.
2.He formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his goals.
3.He believed Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and had to be forged into a single unified republic.
4.During 1830’s, Mazzini sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
5.As uprisings in 1831 and 1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
6.Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in destroying the Austrian forces in 1859.
7.Even Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and with the help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers.
8.In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.
4.3 STRANGE CASE OF BRITAIN
Nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe. (i) Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden uprising or revolution. It was the result of a long drawn out process. (ii) There was no British nation prior to 18th century. The inhabitants of British Isles were ethnic ones — English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Though each had their own culture and political traditions, the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power and expanded its influence over other nations, such as Scotland. (iii) The British Parliament was dominated by its English members. They tried to suppress Scotland’s distinct culture and political institutions. They could neither speak their language nor could they wear their national dress. A large number of them were driven out of their homeland. (iv) In 1688, through a bloodless revolution the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy and became the instrument to set up a nation-state at its Centre. (v) By the Act of Union in 1707, Scotland was incorporated in the United Kingdom. Though the Irish Catholics were against a union with England, Ireland was forcibly incorporated in United Kingdom in 1801. (vi) Thus it was parliamentary action and not revolution or war that was the instrument through which the British nation was formed. (vii) A new ‘British Nation’ was formed through propagation of English culture. The symbols of the New Britain—”the British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God save our noble King) and the English language” were promoted, and the older nations became the subordinate partners in the Union.
5.0 VISUALIZING THE NATION
1.Marianne and Germania were both female allegories used by artists in the 19th century to represent the nation.
2. In France she was named Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
3. Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and republic—the red cap, the tri-colour, the cockade.
4. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares as a national symbol of unity. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
5. Instead of just having the idea of father land, they wanted to implant a suitable image in the minds of the people. They invariably chose the mother figure symbolizing nations—Britannia, Germania and Marianne reminding us of our concept of Matribhumi.
6. Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves as German oak stands for heroism. It was hung from the ceiling of St. Paul’s Church, where Frankfurt Parliament was convened, to symbolize the liberal revolution.
6.0 NATIONALALISM AND IMPERIALISM
The nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans due to the following reasons: (i) Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as the Slavs. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman empire. (ii) After the decline of the Ottoman empire and the growth of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, the region became very explosive. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence. (iii) As the different nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of others. (iv) Balkan also became the scene of big power rivalry. Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungry — all big powers were keen in countering the hold of other powers. This ultimately turned Balkan into a war region which eventually provided a minor cause for the First World War.
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
1 MARKS QUESTION
Question 1.
What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to the French Revolution in Europe?
Answer:
It led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. Question 2.
What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries?
Answer:
The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. They proclaimed that it was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its decisions.
Question 3.
What is the meaning of concentration camps?
Answer:
Concentration camps are prisons where people are detained and tortured without due process of law.
Question 4.
Name the Treaty of 1832 that recognised Greece as an independent nation.
Answer:
Treaty of 1832: Constantinople
Question 5.
Name the event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe in 1830-1848?
Answer:
The Greek War of Independence in 1821. Question 6.
What was the main aim of revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815?
Answer:
The main aim of revolutionaries of Europe was to oppose monarchial forms of government. Question 7.
Who remarked “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”.
Answer:
Duke Metternich Question 8.
Who was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871?
Answer:
Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871. Question 9.
Who was proclaimed the King of United Italy in 1861?
Answer:
Victor Emmanuel-II 3MARKS QUESTION Question 01.
Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after 1815.
Answer:
Three beliefs of conservatism that emerged after 1815 were: 1.Established and traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, the Church, property and family should be preserved.
2.They believed in the modernization of the traditional institution to strengthen them, rather than returning to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
3.Also they believed that abolition of feudalism and serfdom and replacing it with a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy and a dynamic economy could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Question 02.
Explain the contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification.
Answer:
1.Contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification. Nationalist feelings started spreading amongst the middle class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite different parts of German confederation into a nation state to have an elected parliamentarian government.
2. However, this liberal movement was repressed by the combined forces of monarchy and military supported by Prussian landowners. 3.Prussian Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, took the responsibility of national unification with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
4. Under his leadership he fought three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France.
5.Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification of Germany was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France. Question 03.
Explain any three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Answer:
The three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in 18th and 19th centuries in Poland:
(i) Emphasis on vernacular language. Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. The use of the Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. For example, In Poland, following armed rebellion against Russian rule, Polish was used for church gatherings and religious instruction. As a result, a number of priests and bishops were put in jails or sent to Siberia as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
(ii) Emphasis on collection of local folklore. It was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to the large audience who were mostly illiterate.
(iii) Use of music to keep the nationalist feeling alive. For example, Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. Question 04.
Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe.
Answer:
1.The year following 1815, was the period of revolutionaries. Most of the revolutionaries were committed to oppose monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and freedom
2.One such prominent revolutionary was “Giuseppe Mazzini”, an Italian revolutionary. Mazzini also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part in the struggle for freedom. Ele strongly believed in the unification of Italy as a single unified republic which could be the basis of Italian liberty.
3.Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of a democratic republic frightened the Conservatives. His ideas also influenced the revolutionaries of Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
Question 05.
Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered.
Answer:
Three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered were: The Napoleonic Code —
1.It finished all the privileges based on birth and established equality before law and secured the right to property.
2.He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3.He introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and common national currency to facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one place to another.
Question 06.
Explain any three causes of conflict in the ‘Balkan area’ after 1871.
Answer:
The nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans due to the following reasons:
(i) Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as the Slavs. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman empire.
(ii) After the decline of the Ottoman empire and the growth of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, the region became very explosive. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
(iii) As the different nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of others.
(iv) Balkan also became the scene of big power rivalry. Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungry — all big powers were keen in countering the hold of other powers. This ultimately turned Balkan into a war region which eventually provided a minor cause for the First World War.
Question 07.
Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe.
Answer:
1.In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on movement of goods and capital. 2.But in the 19th century Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.
3.A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 custom barriers and pay 5% duty at each one of them.
4.As each region had its own system of weights and measures this involved time-consuming calculations.
5.Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic growth and exchange by the new commercial classes who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing free movement of goods, people and capital.
Question 08.
How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain.
Answer:
Culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the growth of nationalism.
1. Culture. Role of culture was important in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, music etc. helped in developing and expressing nationalist feelings. Romanticism was a cultural movement that led to the development of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science and instead focussed on emotions and intuition.
2.Language. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
3.Music and Dance. Romantics such as the German philosopher Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people —das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularised.
Question 09.
Describe any three steps taken by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Answer: 1.The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was under the rule of an absolute monarch.
2.When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity and nationhood For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen).
3. They were given the tri-colour flag, the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
Question 10.
Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s.
Answer:
The causes of economic hardships in Europe during 1830s are follows- 1.Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment. Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
2.Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine- made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile production.
3.In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.
5 MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER Question 01.
What did Liberal Nationalism stand for? Explain any four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere.
Answer:
Liberalism or Liberal Nationalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
Four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere are:- 1.Liberalism stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction. For example, Napoleon’s administration was a confederation of 29 states, each of these possessed its own currencies, weight and measures.
2.Liberal Nationalists argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
3.In 1834, a customs union or ” zollverein” was formed. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
4.The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interest to national unification.
Question 02.
Explain any five social and administrative reforms introduced by Napoleon in regions under his control.
Answer:
1.Napoleon had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field in order to make the whole system rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 is usually known as the Napoleonic Code. 2.The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on birth, establishing equality before law and securing the right to property.
3.Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues (abuse of manorial lords).
4.Transport and communication systems were improved.
5.Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.
6.Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to realize that uniform laws, standard weights and measures and a common national currency.
Question 03.
How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the ‘nation’ in Europe? Explain with examples.
Answer:
Culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the growth of nationalism.
(i) Role of culture was important in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, music etc. helped in developing and expressing nationalist feelings.
(ii) Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries portrayed nations as female figures. The female form, that was chosen to personify the nation, did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
(iii) Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed everywhere.
(iv) Romantics such as the German philosopher Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk.
Question 04.
Explain any five economic hardships that Europe faced in the 1830s.
Answer
1.Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
2.Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
3.Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile production.
4.In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
5.The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.
Question 05.
Describe any five measures which were introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Answer: 1.The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789.
2.When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity and nationhood.
3. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen).
4.They were given the tri-colour flag, the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity. French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as: 5.Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
Question 06.
How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European States after 1815? Explain with examples.
Answer:
1.During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal nationalists underground. 2.Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
3.Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary bom in Geneva in 1807. He was a member of the Secret Society of the Carbonari. He attempted a revolution in 1831 and was sent into exile.
4.He had set up two more underground societies, namely, Young Italy (1832) in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. The members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and Germany.
5.He opposed monarchy and small states and kingdoms and dreamt of a Democratic Republic. He believed the unification of Italy alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
Question 07.
Describe the process of unification of Germany.
Answer:
In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states ceased to exist during the Napoleonic wars. At the end of the war, there were still 39 independent states in Germany. Prussia was most powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.
(i) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who had tried to unite the different regions of the German federation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament. (ii) In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to vote for an All German National Assembly. Their representatives met at Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as emperor. (iii) The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by combined forces of the monarchy, the military and the ‘Junkers’. (iv) Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck led the movement for unification of Germany. Bismarck carried out this process with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy. He fought three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France. (v) Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of Versailes and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German Emperor. Question 08.
Question 8
Explain the process of unification of Italy.
Answer:
1.Giuseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy.
2.He formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his goals.
3.He believed Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and had to be forged into a single unified republic.
4.During 1830’s, Mazzini sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
5.As uprisings in 1831 and 1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
6.Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in destroying the Austrian forces in 1859.
7.Even Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and with the help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers.
8.In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.
Question 09. Describe the process of Unification of Britain.
Answer: Nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe.
(i) Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden uprising or revolution. It was the result of a long drawn out process.
(ii) There was no British nation prior to 18th century. The inhabitants of British Isles were ethnic ones — English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Though each had their own culture and political traditions, the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power and expanded its influence over other nations, such as Scotland.
(iii) The British Parliament was dominated by its English members. They tried to suppress Scotland’s distinct culture and political institutions. They could neither speak their language nor could they wear their national dress. A large number of them were driven out of their homeland.
(iv) In 1688, through a bloodless revolution the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy and became the instrument to set up a nation-state at its center.
(v) By the Act of Union in 1707, Scotland was incorporated in the United Kingdom. Though the Irish Catholics were against a union with England, Ireland was forcibly incorporated in United Kingdom in 1801.
(vi) Thus it was parliamentary action and not revolution or war that was the instrument through which the British nation was formed.
(vii) A new ‘British Nation’ was formed through propagation of English culture. The symbols of the New Britain—”the British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God save our noble King) and the English language” were promoted, and the older nations became the subordinate partners in the Union.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1. NCERT BOOK CLASS-10
2.XAM IDEA
3.INTERNET DATABASE
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