The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the emergence of distinct political philosophies, each envisioning a different societal structure:
Liberals
Liberals championed a nation that tolerated all religions, standing in stark contrast to the state-controlled churches prevalent at the time. They fiercely opposed the unchecked power of dynastic rulers and sought to safeguard individual rights against governmental overreach. Their ideal governance involved a representative, elected parliamentary government and a well-trained judiciary independent of rulers and officials. However, it's crucial to note that liberals were not democrats in the modern sense. They did not favor universal adult franchise, believing that only men of property should have the right to vote, and explicitly denied voting rights to women.
Radicals
Radicals, on the other hand, advocated for a nation where the government was based on the majority of a country’s population. They strongly opposed the privileges enjoyed by big landowners and wealthy factory owners. While they were not against the existence of private property, they vehemently disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few.
Conservatives
Conservatives initially stood in stark opposition to both radicals and liberals. In the 18th century, they were fundamentally opposed to the very idea of change. However, the profound impact of the French Revolution prompted a shift in their thinking. By the 19th century, conservatives grudgingly accepted that some change was inevitable, but they firmly believed that the past had to be respected, and any change should be brought about through a slow, gradual process.
Industrial Society and Social Change
The 19th century was an era of rapid industrialization that brought about significant social transformations:
* New cities emerged, and industrial regions expanded, fueled by the growth of railways.
* Industrialization drew men, women, and children into factories, often subjecting them to long working hours and meager wages.
* Unemployment was rampant, and the burgeoning cities grappled with severe housing and sanitation problems.
* Crucially, almost all industries remained the private property of individuals, leading to vast disparities in wealth.
* Many liberals and radicals believed that the workforce should be educated and healthy to be productive.
* Disillusioned with their conditions, many workers rallied around liberals and radicals, demanding change. Some even advocated for a revolution to dismantle the existing governments established in Europe in 1815.
Nationalists
Amidst these ideological currents, Nationalists emerged, advocating for revolutions that would create nations where all citizens would possess equal rights, irrespective of their background.
The Coming of Socialism in Europe
The social and economic disparities created by industrialization paved the way for the rise of socialism:
Socialists
Socialists were fundamentally against private property, viewing it as the root of all social evils of the time. They believed that if society as a whole, rather than individuals, controlled property, greater attention would be paid to collective social interests.
Co-operatives
Some socialists proposed the idea of co-operatives. Visionaries like Robert Owen attempted to establish co-operative communities, such as "New Harmony" in Indiana, USA. However, other socialists argued that co-operatives could not be built on a wide scale through individual initiative alone. They demanded that governments should actively encourage and support co-operatives. In France, Louis Blanc specifically urged the government to replace capitalist enterprises with co-operatives. These co-operatives were envisioned as associations where people produced goods together and distributed profits based on the work done by each member.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels profoundly influenced socialist thought. Marx believed that capitalists unjustly appropriated a share of the profit that rightfully belonged to the workers. He passionately argued that workers should overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property. His vision was a society where workers would free themselves from capitalist exploitation and establish a radically socialist state—a communist society—where all property was socially controlled. He saw this as the inevitable "society of the future."
Spread of Socialism
By the 1870s, socialist ideas gained significant traction across Europe. To coordinate their efforts, socialists formed an international body known as the Second International. Workers in England and Germany organized associations to demand better living and working conditions. Political parties, such as the Socialist Party in France and the Labour Party in Britain, were formed by socialists and trade unionists, indicating the growing political power of the movement.
The Russian Revolution
The early 20th century saw Russia on the brink of revolution:
* In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia as an autocratic monarch, wielding absolute power.
* His regime was marked by heavy taxes levied on peasants.
* The Tsar's decision to plunge Russia into the First World War proved disastrous, leading to a massive loss of Russian soldiers' lives.
Economy and Society in Russia
* Peasants formed the backbone of Russian society, with about 85% of the population earning their living from agriculture. They produced for both the market and their own consumption, but faced high land revenues and often had to perform free labor. Their living conditions were miserable, and they seldom owned the land they tilled.
* Industrial workers were concentrated in specific "pockets." Most industries were private property. While the government nominally supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited hours, these rules were frequently broken. Working hours in small workshops could stretch to 15 hours, compared to 10-12 hours in larger factories. Workers were often divided by skills, and though women constituted 31% of the factory labor force in 1914, they were paid less than men. Divisions also manifested in dress and manners. Despite these challenges, workers formed associations to assist members during unemployment or financial hardship and often united to strike for better conditions and wages.
Revolution of 1905: The "Bloody Sunday"
The year 1904 marked a turning point for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods soared, and real wages plummeted by 20%. The dismissal of four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers sparked widespread outrage, leading to calls for industrial action.
* On January 22, 1905, over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike, demanding an eight-hour workday, increased wages, and improved working conditions.
* The protesting workers, led by Father Gapon, marched towards the Winter Palace. They were met with brutal force by the police, resulting in over 100 workers killed and about 300 wounded. This tragic event became infamously known as 'Bloody Sunday'.
* Bloody Sunday ignited a wave of strikes across the country, universities closed down, and students staged walkouts.
* The widespread unrest forced the Tsar to make some concessions, leading to the Revolution of 1905.
The Duma
During the Revolution of 1905, the Tsar reluctantly allowed the formation of the Duma, an elected consultative Parliament. However, the Tsar's autocratic tendencies quickly reasserted themselves. The first Duma was dismissed within 75 days, and though a second Duma was re-elected within three months, the Tsar was determined to prevent any challenge to his authority. Liberals and revolutionaries were systematically kept out of the Duma.
Russian Revolution and the First World War
Initially, the First World War enjoyed popular support in Russia, with people rallying behind Tsar Nicholas II. However, the Tsar's decision to not consult the Duma in wartime decisions proved to be a fatal mistake. Intense anti-German sentiments prevailed, but the Russian armies suffered devastating defeats, leading to immense casualties. Russian forces even resorted to destroying crops and buildings to deny them to the enemy, further exacerbating the suffering of the populace. The Russian population desperately sought an end to the war, but the Tsar refused, and the army's morale plummeted.
Impact of the War
The war had a catastrophic impact on Russia:
* Industries suffered a severe setback, and railway lines began to crumble, disrupting supply chains.
* Large quantities of grains were diverted to feed the army, leading to severe shortages of grain and bread in cities.
* Riots at bread shops became a common occurrence, reflecting the widespread hunger and discontent.
* The war resulted in an appalling seven million casualties, turning the people decisively against the Tsar.
The February Revolution (1917)
By February 1917, food shortages were acutely felt in workers' quarters, intensified by a bitterly cold winter with heavy snow and frost, making life incredibly difficult.
* On February 22nd, a lockout at a factory on the right bank of the River Neva triggered a wave of strikes. The next day, fifty factories joined the strike, with women often leading the protests.
* Workers crossed the river and surrounded government buildings, leading to the suspension of the Duma.
* When the cavalry was called out to control the workers, they refused to open fire and, astonishingly, joined the workers.
* Together, the cavalry soldiers and workers formed a 'Soviet' or 'Council', which became known as the Petrograd Soviet.
* Faced with overwhelming opposition and advised by his military commanders, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on March 2nd.
* A provisional government was formed to run the country, marking the end of the monarchy. The Petrograd Soviet played a pivotal role in leading this February Revolution, which successfully brought down the Tsarist autocracy.
Aftermath of the February Revolution
The February Revolution opened the door for new political developments:
* The prominent Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile in April 1917.
* Upon his return, Lenin put forward his famous "April Theses," outlining three key demands:
* The war should be brought to a close.
* Land should be transferred to the peasants.
* Banks should be nationalized.
The Russian Revolution of October 1917
A deep conflict soon emerged between the provisional government, led by Kerenskii, and the Bolsheviks.
* The Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Leon Trotskii, decided to seize power.
* As Prime Minister Kerenskii called for loyal troops, military men aligned with the Bolsheviks moved swiftly to take control of telephone and telegraph offices.
* The iconic ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government.
* By nightfall, the city was under the control of the Military Revolutionary Committee, and the provisional government ministers surrendered. By December, the Bolsheviks had consolidated control over the Moscow-Petrograd area.
Effects of the October Revolution
The October Revolution fundamentally transformed Russia:
* Most industries and banks were nationalized in November 1917.
* Land was declared social property, and peasants were empowered to seize the land of the nobility.
* In cities, the Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
* They banned the use of old aristocratic titles.
* New uniforms were designed for the army and officials, symbolizing the break with the old order.
* In 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk, withdrawing Russia from the First World War.
* Russia transitioned into a one-party state, and censorship was introduced.
* The country plunged into a Civil War between the Bolsheviks' supporters (the "Reds") and a coalition of non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy (the "Whites").
Making of a Socialist Society
Following the Civil War, the Bolsheviks embarked on building a socialist society:
* Banks and industries remained nationalized.
* Five-Year Plans were introduced to rapidly industrialize the country and develop its economy.
* Stalin introduced the collectivization of agriculture, creating large collective farms where profits were shared among members. Those who opposed collectivization faced severe punishment.
Global Influence of the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution had a profound global impact:
* Communist parties were formed in many countries across the world, inspired by the Bolshevik model.
* The Comintern, an international organization of socialist parties, was established to promote world revolution.
* However, by the 1950s, the Russian government began to lose popular support.
* By the end of the 20th century, socialism, particularly the Soviet model, suffered a significant setback with the dissolution of the Soviet Union into different countries, marking the end of an era.
0 Comments
Thank you