Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Early Writing Systems
1.The period before the invention of writing is understood mainly through archaeological evidence.
One of the earliest known writing systems belonged to the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation, also called the Indus Valley Civilisation or the Harappan Civilisation.
2. Writings and engravings found on seals and pottery show that the Harappans used a pictographic script. However, this script has not yet been deciphered. Therefore, we still cannot understand the Harappan script, which is also called Sindhu lipi.
2.Other early writing systems included the cuneiform script of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphic script of ancient Egypt.
3.These writing systems flourished around the same time as the Harappan Civilisation. Unlike the Harappan script, they have been deciphered. Therefore, they mark the beginning of the historical period, about 5,000 years ago.
4.From about 400 BCE, the Brahmi script was used in parts of Southern India and the Ganga Valley (Northern India). It was later widely used in the inscription by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It was also used by the contemporary Iron Age people across Southern India.
The Invention of Writing: Before and After
The invention of writing brought a major change in the study of history. The table below shows the differences between the period before and after the invention of writing:
Basis of Comparison | Before the Invention of Writing | After the Invention of Writing |
Period of Human History | Covers more than 99% of human history from about 3 million years ago to 5000 years ago. | Covers less than 1% of human history (the last 5,000 years, including the present). |
Main Sources of Information | Tools, implements and other material objects (artefacts) are the main sources of information. | Material remains and written records are used to understand the lives of people and society. |
Information About People | Difficult to know people’s thoughts, ideas and beliefs. | Written records provide information about people, events and social, political and cultural life. |
Measurement of Time | The dating of events and cultures is only approximate. | The dating of events becomes more accurate because written records mention specific dates of events such as coronations and wars. |
Importance of Studying Early Human History
The study of early human history helps us understand how humans biologically and culturally evolved and adapted to changes in climate and the environment.
Biological Evolution
1.Biological evolution means the gradual physical and genetic changes in humans over time.
2.Our earliest ancestors were called australopithecines (australis means Southern and pithecus means primates). Over time, they evolved into modern human beings called Homo sapiens.
Cultural Evolution
1.Cultural evolution explains how humans adapted to their surroundings during the Quaternary Period (the last 2.6 million years, including the present).
2.Humans developed tools, techniques and other forms of technology to survive changing climatic and environmental conditions.
3.Human life gradually changed from hunting and gathering to agriculture and food production. The production of surplus food and material goods laid the foundation for the growth of civilisation.
Early Human Migration
1.It is generally believed that the earliest human ancestors evolved and lived in Africa. They began to move out of Africa about 2 million years ago. Homo erectus, an early human ancestor, was the first hominin to leave Africa.
2.They used stone tools, such as hand axes and cleavers. These tools have been found in Asia and Europe, showing that they spread from Africa between 2 million and 0.5 million years ago.
3.Another major migration out of Africa took place about 125,000 years ago. This migration was linked to the early Homo sapiens (modern humans).
4.Homo sapiens evolved in Africa about 300,000 years ago. Today, modern humans are found all over the world.
Evidence of Our Human Ancestors
1.Archaeologists explore early human sites to learn about our ancestors. They discover tools, bones and other objects left behind by early humans.
2.Each discovery helps them understand how people lived long ago.
3.To understand these discoveries better, archaeologists also make and use similar tools. This helps them learn how early humans made, used and depended on these tools in their daily lives.
Our Human Ancestors
1.The earliest human settlements were found in Africa, Asia and Europe. Together, these regions are known as the Old World. During this period, different kinds of human ancestors lived together.
2.About 2.6 million years ago, one group of these ancestors made the earliest stone tools. This marked the beginning of human behaviour, as animals do not have the cognitive ability to make such tools. Therefore, human beings came to be known as hominins or tool makers.
3.The tools they made are called extra-corporal limbs because they acted as extensions of the human body, helping people perform tasks that could not be done with their hands alone.
4.Humans made these tools, used them and discarded them when they became worn out. Over time, the discarded tools were buried in the upper layers of the Earth and were later discovered by archaeologists.
4.Similarly, the remains of some early human ancestors were buried deep underground and gradually turned into fossils over thousands or even millions of years.
5.The discovery of tools and fossils provides important evidence that helps archaeologists reconstruct human history and understand how our ancestors lived. These discoveries show that Homo habilis (“handy man”) lived in Africa, especially in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Kenya. Their successors, Homo erectus, invented hand axes and cleavers.
6.Homo erectus were among the first human ancestors to migrate out of Africa and gradually spread into Europe and Asia. Although all human ancestors were tool makers, Homo sapiens developed more complex technologies.
Overview of Key Human Species:
Species | Key Characteristics & Tool Technology |
Homo habilis | Lived in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kenya, 2–6 million years ago; made chopper stone tools. |
Homo erectus | Lived in the Eastern African Rift Valley, 2 million years ago; made handaxes and cleavers. |
Homo neanderthalensis | Lived in Europe and Southwest Asia till about 40,000 years ago; made Middle Palaeolithic flake tools. |
Homo sapiens | Living humans; modern human species living today on earth. |
Periods of Early Human History
Early human history is divided into different periods based on technological developments, such as the use of tools, the beginning of agriculture and changes in human lifestyle and settlement patterns. The main periods are:
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) ➜ Mesolithic ➜ Neolithic (New Stone Age) ➜ Chalcolithic (Copper & Stone Age) ➜ Bronze Age ➜ Iron Age
Palaeolithic Hunter–Gatherers (Old Stone Age)
The Stone Age is divided into three stages: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic and Neolithic.
The word Palaeo means ‘old’ and lithic means ‘stone’. Therefore, the Palaeolithic Period is also called the Old Stone Age.
Early Human Settlements in Palaeolithic Age
In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlement dates back to about 2 million years ago.
Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu is dated to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago and Isampur in Karnataka is dated to about 1.2 million years ago. At these sites, animal fossils and large cutting tools such as hand axes and cleavers have been found.
Other tools, such as stone scrapers and choppers, made of quartzite and limestone, have also been discovered.
Early humans used stone tools to chop animal meat, dig out tubers, scrape animal skin and break animal bones to extract protein-rich marrow.
Development of Hunting and Gathering
Hunting and gathering gradually became more advanced with the use of smaller stone tools. The main types of tools included scrapers, borers and points.
These tools made hunting more efficient by allowing the use of projectiles with sharp points. Later, humans invented the bow and arrow.
They also made parallel-sided blades and microblades from glassy-textured rocks, which were very sharp when freshly made. Humans also hunted small game animals.
Cultural Developments
Humans developed symbolic communication. They decorated the walls of caves and rock shelters with paintings. They also used pigments to decorate their bodies.
They were the first to make beads from stone, bone and shell. They also used a special stone tool called a burin (engraver) to engrave symbolic designs on bones and shells, such as ostrich eggs.
Microblades were fixed into handles to make them easier to use.
These developments are associated with Homo sapiens, our immediate ancestors. They gradually spread across the world, including Australia and the Americas, between 70,000 and 12,000 years ago.
Mesolithic Hunter–Gatherers
The Mesolithic Period was a time of important changes in climate, human life and technology.
Around 12,000 years ago, the Earth’s climate became warmer, causing major changes in the environment. Forests and grasslands expanded into areas that were previously covered by ice sheets.
The new environment provided a wider variety of resources, including small game animals, fish and edible wild grains. This contributed to one of the earliest major increases in the human population.
People used a variety of microlithic tools to collect marine and freshwater food and fishing became the mainstay of their subsistence economy.
Art flourished during this period and people frequently lived in caves and rock shelters.
The Bhimbetka World Heritage Site in Madhya Pradesh contains hundreds of painted rock shelters, showing evidence of Mesolithic and earlier human occupation.
The Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution marked the gradual change from a hunting and gathering way of life to food production through agriculture and animal domestication.
Beginning of the Neolithic Revolution
As hunter-gatherers became familiar with seasons and different food resources, they gradually adopted a food-producing way of life. This change is known as the Neolithic Revolution.
Its main feature was the domestication of selected plants and animals, bringing them under human control through cultivation and animal husbandry and new breeds of plants and animals were also developed varieties.
Unlike hunter-gatherers, who made tools for obtaining food, Neolithic farmers made tools for food production and food processing. They also made earthenware pottery in different shapes and sizes.
They used a variety of raw materials and resources. They established the first village settlements, which laid the foundation for the Urban Revolution.
Neolithic Developments Across Different Regions
Region | Major Domesticated Crop | Sequence of Neolithic Developments |
West Asia | Wheat and Barley | Sedentism ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Cultivation ➔ Agricultural landscape ➔ Pottery |
West Africa | Pearl Millet | Pottery ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Cultivation ➔ Agricultural landscape ➔ Sedentism |
India | Millets | Pottery ➔ Cultivation ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Sedentism ➔ Agricultural landscape |
Ganga Plains (India) | Rice | Pottery ➔ Cultivation ➔ Sedentism ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Agricultural landscape |
North China | Millets | Pottery ➔ Cultivation ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Sedentism ➔ Agricultural landscape |
South China (Yangtze) | Rice | Pottery ➔ Cultivation ➔ Sedentism ➔ Livestock domestication ➔ Agricultural landscape |
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture did not take place everywhere at the same time. It occurred at different periods in different regions of the world.
Neolithic Period in the Indian Subcontinent
In the Indian subcontinent, agriculture began at different times in different regions. The oldest Neolithic site is Mehrgarh, located on the Bolan River in present-day Pakistan. It is also the earliest agricultural village, dating back to about 7000 BCE.
The people of Mehrgarh built handmade sun-dried brick houses and granaries. They also buried their dead in graves.
They made a variety of ornaments from semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli, carnelian and shells.
They cultivated wheat and barley and raised sheep, goats and Indian cattle, especially the zebu (humped bull).
The people of Mehrgarh were the first to make copper objects. Around 4000 BCE, they entered the Metal Age, marking the beginning of the Chalcolithic period. This laid the foundation for the Bronze Age Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation around 3500 BCE.
Around 2500 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was occupied by Neolithic agricultural communities. Their way of life included cattle, sheep and goat herding, along with the cultivation of cereals, millets and pulses.
In some parts of the country, these communities also interacted with contemporary Chalcolithic cultures.
The Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation developed gradually from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures.
Beginning of the Civilisation
The Neolithic way of life began around 7000 BCE at Mehrgarh in the foothills of Baluchistan. It gradually spread to the middle and upper Indus Valley and further East.
Around 4500 BCE, some settlements learned to extract copper from its ores. These became the earliest Chalcolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent and marked the beginning of the Bronze Age.
Development of the Early Harappan Phase
Radiocarbon dates suggest that the Pre-Harappan phase at sites such as Bhirrana and Kunal, located in the dried Sarasvati river belt, began between 7000 BCE and 5500 BCE.
Over time, many regional traditions developed into the standard features of the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation around 2500 BCE. Since these sites show cultural continuity, this stage is known as the Early Harappan Phase.
These developments eventually led to the emergence of the Early Harappan Civilisation around 2600 BCE.
The use of copper tools in the fertile alluvial plains of the Indus and Ghaggar–Sarasvati basins increased agricultural productivity. This brought greater prosperity to these communities.
During this period, pottery was produced on a large scale, showing different regional styles. Regional differences in pottery and craft production became more noticeable at the early Chalcolithic sites of Baluchistan and the Indus and Ghaggar–Sarasvati basins from around 4000 BCE onwards.
There was continuity in pottery traditions, semi-precious stone beads, shell bangles, terracotta objects and copper working.
New developments also appeared, such as the construction of perimeter walls, the use of seals and the early beginnings of the Harappan script.
Arts and Crafts
The Harappans were not only farmers but also skilled craftsmen. Pottery was one of their major crafts and played an important role in their economy.
Pottery found in different regions shows different shapes of vessels and painted designs. Other important crafts included copper work, shell work and the making of semi-precious stone beads.
Evidence of Early Harappan bead-making has been found at Harappa (Pakistan), Kunal (Haryana) and Datrana (Gujarat).
Early Harappan people made extensive use of graffiti on pottery. They also used seals with geometric designs and simple animal motifs, which have been found at Harappa, Rehman Dheri and Kunal. These are considered the earliest forms of the Harappan script and the inscribed seals of the Mature Harappan Civilisation.
Growth of Urban Centres
The technological advancements and economic integration during the Early Harappan Period led to the emergence of the urban centres of the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation.
The Early Harappans also ploughed their fields. Evidence from Kalibangan shows horizontal and vertical furrows, indicating double-crop cultivation, similar to the Rabi and Kharif crops grown even today.
The Harappans followed standard systems of weights and measurements, reflecting their advanced planning and organisation.
Their well-planned settlements and efficient interregional trade show the effective use of these standard systems. They used a binary multiple system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) for smaller weights and multiples of ten for larger weights.
Cubical stone weights used by the Harappans have been found at several archaeological sites.
Bronze Age Civilisations Outside India
The three major Bronze Age civilisations outside India were the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations. These civilisations existed during the same period as the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation. The four earliest civilisations of the world developed in river valleys:
The Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation developed along the Sindhu (Indus) and Sarasvati rivers.
The Mesopotamian Civilisation developed along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West Asia.
The Egyptian Civilisation developed along the Nile River.
The Chinese Civilisation developed in the Huang He (Yellow River) basin in Northern China.
Mesopotamia was geographically closer to the Indus and Ghaggar–Sarasvati valleys. This closeness encouraged strong trade and cultural contacts between the Mesopotamian and Harappan civilisations.
However, there is little archaeological evidence of direct contact between the Egyptian or Chinese civilisations and the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation.
Mesopotamian Civilisation
Among the four early river valley civilisations, the earliest city-based civilisation developed in Mesopotamia.
The word Mesopotamia means ‘the land in between’ and is the Greek name for the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West Asia. Today, this region mainly includes Iraq and Kuwait, along with parts of Turkey and South-Western Iran.
The crescent-shaped foothills of the Zagros and Taurus Mountains, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea in the West to the Persian Gulf in the East, are called the Fertile Crescent because the land is highly suitable for agriculture.
Farming began in this region around 12,000 years before the present.
Around 4500 BCE, copper tools were introduced. The use of copper tools improved agriculture, craft production and trade. This helped farming spread across the fertile plains of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
Gradually, several large cities developed into city-states with organised systems of government over the next 2,000 years.
From around 3500 BCE, the four major city-state civilisations that flourished in Mesopotamia were the Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian civilisations.
The Sumerians
The Sumerian Civilisation was the earliest city-based civilisation in Mesopotamia. It developed at Ur and several other cities in Sumer (present-day Southern Iraq).
The Sumerians were the first to build dams and canals for irrigation. They were also the first to use mud bricks and burnt bricks to build houses, defensive walls and other structures.
Religion and Ziggurats of the Sumerians
The Sumerians worshipped many gods, whom they believed controlled natural forces such as floods and winds.
They built temples for their gods, which played an important role in people’s lives.
Each city had a grand temple called a ziggurat, dedicated to its chief god. The city usually developed around the ziggurat.
The ziggurat was a tower-like, stepped, pyramid-shaped temple with the main temple at the top. The top of the ziggurat was considered a holy place.
The surrounding area contained palaces and royal storehouses. Many Ziggurats were enclosed within temple complexes that also contained storehouses and administrative buildings.
Temple Administration and Society
Economic activities such as agriculture, trade and the transport of goods were controlled by the temple authority. Entry into the sacred temple was restricted to high priests and priestesses.
They were probably part of the ruling class, showing a clear social hierarchy in Mesopotamian society.
The cities were large settlements where kings lived in grand palaces, while ordinary people lived in small brick houses.
Most people were engaged in farming. Many people also practiced crafts such as metalworking, pottery and textile production. Merchants and traders also played an important role in the economy.
While the Sumerians developed canal irrigation, the Early Harappans in the foothills of Baluchistan and neighbouring regions also built check dams, called gabarbands, across small streams for irrigation.
A more advanced example of Harappan water management is found at Dholavira (Kachchh). Here, water from two nearby streams was diverted through dams and canals into a series of deep tanks for storage.
These interconnected tanks were built using stone and mud bricks and some were cut into the bedrock. The dockyard at Lothal, built entirely of burnt bricks, is another excellent example of Harappan water management and architectural skills.
The Beginning of Writing
The Sumerians were the first people to develop writing, around 3300 BCE. Their writing system is called cuneiform because it was written using wedge-shaped marks. The word cuneiform comes from the Latin word cuneus, meaning ‘wedge’.
The cuneiform writing system developed around the same time as the Harappan script. However, while cuneiform has been deciphered, the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered.
Scribes wrote on soft clay tablets by pressing a wedge-shaped stylus into the clay. Scribes held a high position in society, similar to priests and priestesses.
By 3000 BCE, cuneiform was widely used across Mesopotamia, even though different city-states spoke different languages.
Cuneiform tablets provide valuable information about Mesopotamian life and beliefs. They contain myths, epics, hymns, law codes and educational texts. They were also used to keep records of farming and craft activities, including the work of potters, seal cutters, shipbuilders, carpenters and farm workers.
Contributions of the Sumerians
The Sumerians invented the wheeled cart and the sailboat.
They used mathematical calculations for constructing buildings and measuring agricultural fields. Their number system was based on the number 60.
They introduced the concepts of the 60-minute hour, 60-second minute and the 360-degree circle.
The Akkadians
Around 2334 BCE, the Akkadians emerged as a new city-state centred at the city of Akkad in central Mesopotamia. Their rise reduced the power of the Sumerians.
The people of Akkad spoke the Akkadian language, which was different from Sumerian. However, both the Akkadians and Sumerians used the cuneiform script for writing.
Akkadian records describe the unification of different regions of Mesopotamia under a single ruler. This led to the establishment of the world’s first dynastic empire. This period also witnessed the development of creative literature.
The cuneiform tablets of the Akkadian king Sargon mention trade with the Eastern regions of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.
Meluhha is generally identified with the Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation, while Dilmun and Magan are present-day Bahrain and Oman.
The Akkadians traded semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust and probably copper with the Harappans.
The Assyrians
Around 2154 BCE, the Akkadian Empire lost its supremacy to the new city-state of Assur in Northern Mesopotamia. This marked the rise of the Assyrian Civilisation.
The Assyrian Civilisation continued until the early 1700 BCE. Within a short period, the Assyrians extended their rule across Mesopotamia. Their empire also expanded into the neighbouring regions to the West and South.
The Babylonians
While the Assyrians were dominant in the North, the city-state of Babylonia became powerful in central Mesopotamia from around 1900 BCE.
The glory of Babylonia began with the rise of Hammurabi around 1792 BCE. He conquered the neighbouring regions and expanded the small city-state into a large empire.
Hammurabi's most important contribution was the Code of Hammurabi. It was a collection of rules and laws for civil and social life throughout his empire. This code became a foundation for many later legal systems.
By the end of 1400 BCE, the Babylonians had lost their earlier prominence. This happened because of repeated attacks by the Hittites and other rising powers. These powers had an advantage because they mastered new technologies and used natural resources more efficiently. Hittites were the Indo-European people who established a powerful empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) during the second millennium BCE.
Increasing environmental degradation, pressure on agricultural land and internal political and economic problems further weakened Babylonian rule. As a result, the Babylonians lost their dominance and new powers emerged in West Asia.
Egyptian Civilisation
The Egyptian Civilisation is one of the earliest civilisations in the world. It is known for its rich historical records and its lasting influence on other civilisations.
The ancient Greeks and Romans knew about Egypt. The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt and wrote about it as early as the 5th century BCE.
A 9th-century collection of works titled de L'Egypte also provides valuable information about Egyptian history.
Egyptian history has also been reconstructed from papyrus records (early paper documents). These records preserve stories as well as practical information, helping us understand the lives and beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.
Libraries dating back to 2000 BCE stored papyrus scrolls in labelled jars on shelves. One such jar contained the oldest known version of the story of Sindbad the Sailor.
Short stories from this period include animal fables (similar to Aesop's Fables), tales of ghosts, miracles, romances and even the oldest known form of Cinderella.
Deciphering Egyptian Script
In 1799, Pierre Bouchard, a French army engineer, discovered the Rosetta Stone while repairing a fort in Egypt. The Rosetta Stone contained three types of writing, including Greek. Since Greek could still be read, it helped scholars understand the Egyptian script.
In 1822, the French linguist Jean-François Champollion successfully deciphered the Egyptian script.
Growth of the Egyptian Civilisation
The Egyptian calendar had three seasons, each consisting of four months:
• Inundation (Autumn)
• Shemu – Harvest Season (Summer)
• Peret – Growing Season (Winter)
The calendar was based on the rising of Sirius (the Dog Star).
A year consisted of 365 days (12 months of 30 days plus 5 extra days).
Although the calendar was quite accurate, it lost time because the actual year is about one-fourth of a day longer.
Around 3000 BCE, city-states emerged in Egypt as the population increased and more resources became available. The River Nile provided water for the land along its banks.
Every summer, the Nile flooded, leaving behind rich black soil (Kemet) that was ideal for growing crops. The Egyptians called their land Kemet, meaning the black, after the fertile black soil of the Nile Valley.
About 5,000 years ago, Egyptian farmers learned to dig ditches to divert water from the Nile to their fields and store it in reservoirs for later use. By counting the days between the annual Nile floods, the Egyptians developed a calendar.
The construction of ditches and dams required people to work together, leading to the growth of local government.
An administrative class also emerged, forming one of the earliest systems of local government in Egypt.
Pharaohs and Pyramids
Over time, powerful rulers known as Pharaohs came to rule Egypt. After their death, they were buried deep underground and a rectangular structure called a mastaba was built over the burial chamber.
Gradually, mastabas were built one above another, leading to the construction of pyramids. One well-known example is the Step Pyramid at Saqqara.
The Egyptians built pyramids because they believed that every person had a ka (a spiritual double), which continued to live after death if the body was preserved through mummification.
Social Structure
Early Egyptians enjoyed swimming, canoeing, playing board games, music and dancing as their leisure activities.
Festivals were an important part of Egyptian culture and were dedicated to the gods and the pharaohs. During these festivals, the statues of gods were carried in processions accompanied by music played on instruments such as the sistrum.
One important festival was the Sed festival, which marked the 30th year of a king's rule.
These grand celebrations reflected the people's deep respect for their gods and rulers.
Note on Status of Women: Egyptian women generally enjoyed more rights than women in Greek and Roman societies. They could own property and run businesses. Cleopatra (69–30 BCE) was trained from childhood to rule and became queen at the age of 18.
Chinese Civilisation
The Chinese Civilisation flourished along the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze River. These river valleys were centres of early Neolithic cultures from around 7000 BCE.
Around 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper-bronze metallurgy brought many Neolithic settlements, especially those in the Yellow River basin, to the threshold of the Bronze Age.
Around 1600 BCE, urban centres began to emerge due to increased agricultural productivity and advancements in metallurgy and craft production. These developments led to the rise of the first Chinese Bronze Age territorial empire.
Chinese Dynasties
Chinese history is divided into different dynasties. The Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) and the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) were two major dynasties of the Bronze Age.
From 600 BCE, the use of iron became widespread, marking the beginning of the Chinese Iron Age.
The name 'China' is believed to have come from the Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty (221–206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty that unified the country.
Another important dynasty of the Iron Age was the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).
The Zhou rulers were both kings and priests and were believed to be appointed by Heaven. However, they could be removed from power if they failed to ensure the prosperity of their people.
Public officials were selected with great care after being examined in archery, horsemanship, calculations, writing and music.
Historical Records and Writing
China has a rich collection of historical records because official historians carefully recorded important events. The earliest evidence of Chinese history comes from oracle bones and tortoise shells.
Symbols were carved on these objects, which were then heated until they cracked. The patterns of the cracks were interpreted to predict the future.
Today, these oracle bones help us understand the hopes, beliefs and fears of the early Chinese.
The Chinese script is logographic, with each character representing a word or meaningful unit rather than a sound.
Arts and Crafts
The Chinese made jade objects and figurines, which were used for rituals and as prestige objects.
Jade was not available locally and was brought from other regions, making it valuable in social exchanges.
Marble was carved into ornaments shaped like birds and animals and was also used as foundations for wooden pillars.
The Chinese mastered bronze metallurgy to produce weapons, tools and elaborate ritual vessels.
Chinese artisans skilfully carved jade into the shapes of objects such as fish and tied them with a cord.
When struck, these jade objects produced a clear and lasting musical sound, showing the importance of music and the high level of Chinese craftsmanship.
The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China was built over a period of nearly 2,000 years.
The earliest walls were built from around 680 BCE by the Zhou and other dynasties.
They were constructed to protect China from the attacks of nomadic tribes.
Later, these walls were joined together to form a stronger defence system.
The wall continued to be expanded and repaired until the 17th century CE.
Silk and Trade
Silk was known in China from the Neolithic Period (4000–3000 BCE). During the Bronze Age, silk became an important craft.
Around the 2nd century BCE, during the Han Dynasty, silk became a major item of external trade. The trade route used for transporting silk became famous as the Silk Route.
By 1500 BCE, Chinese Bronze Age society had become highly stratified. The ruling class, nobles and aristocrats were at the top of society, followed by farmers and labourers. This became the foundation of the Chinese social hierarchy.
During the Zhou Dynasty, a metal-based medium of exchange came into use. By the 5th century BCE, a money economy had developed.
China was the first country to introduce paper currency. It was also the first to develop a civil service system through public examinations.
Public officials were selected after being tested in archery, horsemanship, calculations, writing and music.
Legacy of the Bronze Age Civilisations
Agricultural growth and the use of new resources in these civilisations supported economic development and led to the rise of urban centres. These civilisations also developed their own social and administrative systems.
The development of writing systems helped record economic transactions and social activities and later led to the creation of literary and creative works.
Many features of our cultural heritage have their roots in the Bronze Age civilisations.
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